Encyclopedia/1. The Cosmos & The Natural World/5. Life Sciences • Curated by Admin Timeline.sg
This timeline traces the seminal contributions, inventions, and lasting legacies of leading figures in microbiology and viral replication, from ancient theories of contagion to modern breakthroughs in gene editing and mRNA vaccines.
Chronological Storyline (43 Milestones)
600 BCE
Sushruta Describes Infection
Sushruta, an ancient Indian surgeon, writes the Sushruta Samhita which describes surgical practices and the role of invisible agents in wound infection. #microbiology #history
Sushruta Describes Infection By Unknown author - https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/obf_images/d0/45/c210860bff03f531e5b1a2d4ce08.jpg Gallery: https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/V0006619.html Wellcome Collection gallery (2018-04-03): https://wellcomecollection.org/works/zqhc6qjz CC-BY-4.0, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=36422819
300 BCE
Charaka Discusses Contagion
Charaka, a physician in ancient India, writes the Charaka Samhita which includes theories on contagion and the spread of disease through tiny particles. #microbiology #history
Charaka Discusses Contagion By Alokprasad,Balajijagadesh - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8124213
100 BCE
Varro Proposes Invisible Organisms
Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro suggests that diseases may be caused by tiny animals that cannot be seen by the eye. #microbiology #history
Varro Proposes Invisible Organisms By Andre Thevet - https://schoolhistory.co.uk/notes/roman-medicine/ ; https://www.google.com/books/edition/Les_vrais_pourtraits_et_vies_des_hommes/hDVOAAAAcAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=marc%20terence%20varron%20chap%20126 page 598, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=44741087
1025 CE
Avicenna Writes on Contagious Diseases
Persian polymath Avicenna publishes The Canon of Medicine, which describes contagious diseases like tuberculosis and their transmission. #microbiology #history
Avicenna Writes on Contagious Diseases By National Library of Medicine - https://www.flickr.com/photos/nlmhmd/54093321223/, No restrictions, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=168831766
1546 CE
Fracastoro Proposes Germ Theory
Italian physician Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that diseases are caused by tiny, transferable 'seed-like' entities. #microbiology #history
Fracastoro Proposes Germ Theory By Attributed to Titian - This file was derived from: Titian Girolamo Fracastoro.jpg:, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=79211693
1658 CE
Kircher Observes Bacteria
German scholar Athanasius Kircher uses a microscope to observe what he calls 'invisible living creatures' in milk and other substances. #microbiology #history
Kircher Observes Bacteria By Cornelis Bloemaert - http://www.portraitindex.de/documents/obj/33802643, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=89213510
1676 CE
Leeuwenhoek Discovers Microorganisms
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria and protozoa using his handmade microscopes, founding the field of microbiology. #microbiology #history
Leeuwenhoek Discovers Microorganisms By Jan Verkolje - http://www.rijksmuseum.nl/collectie/SK-A-957, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34320547
May 14, 1796 CE
Jenner Performs First Smallpox Vaccination
Edward Jenner inoculates 8-year-old James Phipps with cowpox material, successfully protecting him from smallpox. #microbiology #vaccine
Jenner Performs First Smallpox Vaccination By John Raphael Smith - [1] [2], originally uploaded to en by User:Magnus Manske, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=31245
May 1, 1847 CE
Semmelweis Introduces Handwashing
Ignaz Semmelweis mandates handwashing with chlorinated lime for physicians, drastically reducing puerperal fever mortality. #microbiology #history
Semmelweis Introduces Handwashing By József Borsos / Albert Doctor - Ágnes Szemerédi: A fényképészet úttörői, OSZK blog, 2022 [1], Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=123555011
Aug 1, 1854 CE
John Snow Traces Cholera to Water
John Snow maps a cholera outbreak in London to the Broad Street pump, demonstrating waterborne transmission of disease. #microbiology #epidemiology
John Snow Traces Cholera to Water By Unknown author - [1] Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here., Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=403227
1857 CE
Pasteur Proves Fermentation by Microorganisms
Louis Pasteur demonstrates that fermentation is caused by living yeast cells, disproving spontaneous generation. #microbiology #history
Pasteur Proves Fermentation by Microorganisms By Paul Nadar - File:Louis Pasteur, foto av Paul Nadar.jpg, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=28039885
1861 CE
Pasteur Disproves Spontaneous Generation
Louis Pasteur's swan-neck flask experiments conclusively disprove the theory of spontaneous generation. #microbiology #history
Aug 12, 1865 CE
Lister Introduces Antiseptic Surgery
Joseph Lister successfully uses carbolic acid as an antiseptic during surgery, drastically reducing infection rates. #microbiology #medicine
Lister Introduces Antiseptic Surgery By Unknown author - Weltrundschau zu Reclams Universum 1902, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=9647607
1876 CE
Koch Identifies Anthrax Bacillus
Robert Koch isolates and identifies Bacillus anthracis as the cause of anthrax, establishing the germ theory of disease. #microbiology #history
Koch Identifies Anthrax Bacillus By Unknown author - https://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B16691, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1825905
1878 CE
Koch Formulates Koch's Postulates
Robert Koch publishes his postulates, a set of criteria to establish a causal relationship between a microbe and a disease. #microbiology #history
Koch Formulates Koch's Postulates By Unknown author - http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/B16692, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5495788
May 5, 1881 CE
Pasteur Develops Anthrax Vaccine
Louis Pasteur publicly demonstrates the effectiveness of his anthrax vaccine by vaccinating a flock of sheep. #microbiology #vaccine
Mar 24, 1882 CE
Koch Discovers Tuberculosis Bacterium
Robert Koch announces the discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. #microbiology #history
Jul 6, 1885 CE
Pasteur Tests Rabies Vaccine on Humans
Louis Pasteur successfully treats a boy bitten by a rabid dog with his experimental rabies vaccine. #microbiology #vaccine
1887 CE
Shiga Discovers Dysentery Bacillus
Japanese bacteriologist Kiyoshi Shiga isolates and describes Shigella dysenteriae, the bacterium causing bacillary dysentery. #microbiology #history
Shiga Discovers Dysentery Bacillus By anonymous/unknown - Wellcome Library, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12651318
1892 CE
Ivanovsky Discovers Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Russian botanist Dmitri Ivanovsky demonstrates that the causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease is filterable and smaller than bacteria. #virology #history
Ivanovsky Discovers Tobacco Mosaic Virus By Unknown author, PD-RU, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2472759
1897 CE
Beijerinck Coins Term 'Virus'
Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck continues work on tobacco mosaic disease and introduces the concept of 'contagium vivum fluidum' or virus. #virology #history
Beijerinck Coins Term 'Virus' By Unknown author - https://wellcomeimages.org/indexplus/image/M0002348.html, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33668284
1898 CE
Loeffler and Frosch Discover Foot-and-Mouth Virus
Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch demonstrate that foot-and-mouth disease is caused by a filterable pathogen, the first animal virus discovered. #virology #history
Loeffler and Frosch Discover Foot-and-Mouth Virus By Unknown author - [1], CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33008045
Oct 23, 1900 CE
Reed Proves Yellow Fever is Mosquito-Borne
Walter Reed and his team confirm that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes, leading to control measures. #microbiology #history
Reed Proves Yellow Fever is Mosquito-Borne By Unidentified photographer - en:Image:WalterReed.jpeg, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=240486
1909 CE
Ehrlich Develops Salvarsan
Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata discover Salvarsan, an effective treatment for syphilis and the first modern chemotherapeutic agent. #microbiology #medicine
Ehrlich Develops Salvarsan By Harris & Ewing - This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID hec.04709.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing., Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6060062
1917 CE
d'Herelle Discovers Bacteriophages
Félix d'Herelle isolates viruses that infect bacteria, which he names bacteriophages, opening the field of phage research. #virology #history
d'Herelle Discovers Bacteriophages By [Service photo Institut Pasteur - Photothèque] - This file comes from Gallica Digital Library and is available under the digital ID btv1b32000224/f64, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37247789
Sep 3, 1928 CE
Fleming Discovers Penicillin
Alexander Fleming notices that a mold (Penicillium notatum) inhibits bacterial growth, leading to the first antibiotic. #microbiology #medicine
Fleming Discovers Penicillin By Official photographer - http://media.iwm.org.uk/iwm/mediaLib//32/media-32192/large.jpg This photograph TR 1468 comes from the collections of the Imperial War Museums., Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24436974
1935 CE
Stanley Crystallizes Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Wendell Stanley crystallizes the tobacco mosaic virus, demonstrating that viruses are complex protein molecules. #virology #history
Stanley Crystallizes Tobacco Mosaic Virus By Unknown author - http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1946/stanley.html, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18260423
Oct 19, 1943 CE
Waksman Discovers Streptomycin
Selman Waksman and his team isolate streptomycin, the first effective antibiotic against tuberculosis. #microbiology #medicine
Waksman Discovers Streptomycin By New York World-Telegram and the Sun staff photographer: Higgins, Roger, photographer. - Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c19821, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1306990
Mar 1, 1949 CE
Enders Grows Polio Virus in Culture
John Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick Robbins successfully grow poliovirus in human embryonic tissue, earning a Nobel Prize. #virology #medicine
Apr 12, 1952 CE
Salk Polio Vaccine Announced
Jonas Salk announces the successful trial of his inactivated polio vaccine, marking a major victory against polio. #virology #vaccine
Salk Polio Vaccine Announced By SAS Scandinavian Airlines - Commons: file, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=53755620
Apr 25, 1953 CE
Watson and Crick Propose DNA Structure
James Watson and Francis Crick publish the double helix structure of DNA, revolutionizing molecular biology and virology. #molecularbiology #history
Watson and Crick Propose DNA Structure By Newspaper Enterprise Association - This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c37336.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing., Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=189390308
Apr 24, 1960 CE
Sabin Oral Polio Vaccine Licensed
Albert Sabin's live attenuated oral polio vaccine is licensed, becoming a key tool in global polio eradication. #virology #vaccine
Sabin Oral Polio Vaccine Licensed By Original uploader was Bobak at the English Wikipedia - Originally from the English Wikipedia; the description page is/was at Albert Sabin1.jpg., Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1591917
1967 CE
Margulis Proposes Endosymbiotic Theory
Lynn Margulis publishes her theory that eukaryotic cells originated from symbiotic relationships among prokaryotes. #microbiology #evolution
Margulis Proposes Endosymbiotic Theory By Jpedreira - Self-published work by Jpedreira, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=407368
Apr 1, 1970 CE
Discovery of Reverse Transcriptase
David Baltimore and Howard Temin independently discover reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that transcribes RNA into DNA, revolutionizing virology and molecular biology. #virology #molecularbiology
Discovery of Reverse Transcriptase By Thomas Splettstoesser (www.scistyle.com) - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=33598425
1977 CE
Woese Discovers Archaea
Carl Woese identifies archaea as a distinct domain of life through ribosomal RNA sequencing, reshaping the tree of life. #microbiology #evolution
Woese Discovers Archaea By Don Hamerman - Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23565944
Jun 1, 1982 CE
Warren and Marshall Discover H. pylori
Robin Warren and Barry Marshall discover Helicobacter pylori as the cause of peptic ulcers, revolutionizing gastroenterology. #microbiology #medicine
Warren and Marshall Discover H. pylori By WikiEdtingProfile2021 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=104894290
May 20, 1983 CE
Montagnier Discovers HIV
Luc Montagnier and Françoise Barré-Sinoussi isolate the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from a patient, leading to the AIDS epidemic understanding. #virology #medicine
Montagnier Discovers HIV By Prolineserver (talk) - Own work, GFDL 1.2, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5575822
Dec 1, 1983 CE
Mullis Invents PCR
Kary Mullis conceives the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique that amplifies DNA, revolutionizing molecular biology and diagnostics. #molecularbiology #history
Mullis Invents PCR By Dona Mapston - Cropped from Flickr image, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5533280
Sep 13, 1985 CE
Jeffreys Develops DNA Fingerprinting
Alec Jeffreys discovers that DNA sequences vary between individuals, creating the technique of DNA fingerprinting for forensic science. #molecularbiology #history
Jeffreys Develops DNA Fingerprinting By Jane Gitschier - PLoS Genetics, CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=22003040
Jul 28, 1995 CE
Venter Sequences First Bacterial Genome
Craig Venter and his team publish the first complete genome of a free-living organism, Haemophilus influenzae, using shotgun sequencing. #microbiology #genomics
Venter Sequences First Bacterial Genome By Article by Liza Gross, but no photo credit given - A New Human Genome Sequence Paves the Way for Individualized Genomics Gross L PLoS Biology Vol. 5, No. 10, e266 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050266, CC BY 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3091820
Jun 26, 2000 CE
Human Genome Project Draft Completed
The international Human Genome Project announces the completion of a draft of the human genome, enabling discoveries in virology and microbiology. #genomics #history
Human Genome Project Draft Completed By U.S. Department of Energy, Human Genome Project - http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2485616
Jun 28, 2012 CE
CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing Developed
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier publish the use of CRISPR-Cas9 as a programmable gene-editing tool, revolutionizing biology and medicine. #molecularbiology #genetics
CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing Developed By Deposition authors: Nishimasu, H., Ishitani, R., Nureki, O.; Visualization author: Synpath - Atom coordinates: https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4OO8; Visualization: Own work, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=133423568
Dec 11, 2020 CE
mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines Authorized
Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman's foundational work on mRNA modifications leads to the rapid development of highly effective COVID-19 vaccines. #virology #vaccine
mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines Authorized By US Embassy Sweden - Image, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=146052139
