The rise, dictatorship, and assassination of Rome's most celebrated general and statesman, whose transformation of the Republic laid the foundations for imperial rule.
Chronological Storyline (22 Milestones)
Jul 12, 100 BCE
Caesar Born in Rome
Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the patrician Julian clan, claiming descent from Venus through Aeneas. His family held modest political influence despite ancient nobility. #rome #biography
Portrait of Julius Caesar By Ángel M. Felicísimo from Mérida, España - Retrato de Julio César, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=91281949
85 BCE
Sulla's Proscriptions Threaten Caesar
The dictator Sulla ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia, daughter of the populist leader Cinna. Caesar refused and went into hiding, later pardoned through intercession by Vestal Virgins and Sulla's advisors. #politics #rome
Q. Pompeius Rufus. 54 BC. AR Denarius (19mm, 3.21 g, 6h). Rome mint. Bare head of the consul Q. Pompeius Rufus right / Bare head of Sulla right. Crawford 434/1; Sydenham 908; Pompeia 4. Good VF, toned, some light cleaning scratches and marks under tone. Rare. Ex Numismatica Ars Classica 78 (26 May 2014), lot 458; Sternberg [VI] (25 November 1976), lot 755. This coin issue bears the only portrait of the dictator Sulla. The moneyer was the grandson of Sulla and his home would likely have had portraits of their famous ancestor. Thus, although posthumously struck, the portrait on these coins is probably an accurate representation. By CNG - https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=310030, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=80631904
81 BCE
Military Service in Asia Minor
Caesar served on the staff of Marcus Thermus in Asia Minor, distinguishing himself at the siege of Mytilene and earning the civic crown for saving a fellow soldier's life. #war #military
location of the Seven Sages in ancient Greece: location of Mytilene, home of Pittacus By --Immanuel Giel 07:25, 16 May 2008 (UTC) - Own work based on: Greece prefectures map dark.PNG, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4056551
75 BCE
Captured by Cilician Pirates
While traveling to Rhodes for rhetorical study, pirates captured Caesar near Pharmacusa. He maintained imperious dignity, promised to crucify them, and fulfilled that vow after ransom and release. #piracy #biography
Dec 5, 63 BCE
Elected Pontifex Maximus
Caesar won election as high priest of Rome's state religion in a heavily indebted campaign, defeating two senior candidates. This lifetime office provided a residence on the Via Sacra and significant political leverage. #religion #politics
August Labicana Massimo By Marie-Lan Nguyen - Own work, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1233324
61 BCE
Governor of Further Spain
As propraetor in Hispania Ulterior, Caesar campaigned against the Lusitanians and Callaeci, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Military success brought sufficient wealth to clear his crushing debts. #war #conquest
Obverse of RRC 326/1, a silver denarius by Gaius Fundanius in 101 BC depicting Gaius Marius as triumphator on quadriga By American Numismatic Society - http://numismatics.org/collection/1937.158.51, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=139220239
60 BCE
First Triumvirate Formed
Caesar brokered a secret political alliance with Pompey the Great and Marcus Crassus, pooling their enormous resources to dominate Roman politics. The arrangement was cemented by Caesar's marriage to Pompey's daughter Julia. #politics #conspiracy
Bust of Julius Caesar. A member of the triumvirate. By Gautier Poupeau from Paris, France - César, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35036729
59 BCE
Consulship and Agrarian Laws
As consul, Caesar passed land reform legislation for Pompey's veterans through popular assemblies, ignoring senatorial obstruction led by Cato the Younger and his optimate allies. #politics #reform
58 BCE
Gallic Wars Begin
Caesar launched his proconsular command in Gaul with campaigns against the Helvetii and Ariovistus, beginning eight years of conquest that would bring most of modern France and Belgium under Roman control. #war #conquest
The painting depicts the surrender of the Gallic chieftain after the Battle of Alesia (52 BC). The depiction of Gauls with long hair and mustaches is also called into question today. The horse is a Percheron, although at this time this breed was not in Gaul. The rectangular shield also does not accord with the time when they were mostly oval. As well as this, the depiction of the soldiers in the 'Lorica Segmentata' armour is not accurate for the period - as standard issue Legionary uniform were the 'Lorica Hamata' used in the late Republican Period. By Lionel Royer - Musée CROZATIER du Puy-en-Velay. — http://www.mairie-le-puy-en-velay.fr. http://forum.artinvestment.ru/blog.php?b=273473&langid=5, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1218850
55 BCE
First Invasion of Britain
Caesar led expeditions across the Channel to Britain, establishing limited footholds and gathering intelligence. The campaigns held more propaganda value than permanent conquest, enhancing his reputation for daring. #war #exploration
Seconde expédition de César en Bretagne (Détail de la carte de la Gaule en 54 av. J.-C.) By User:Coldeel - Image:Gaule_-54.png, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4978628
53 BCE
Crassus Dies at Carrhae
The triumvirate collapsed when Crassus was killed by Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae. His death removed the balancing force between Caesar and Pompey, setting the stage for their eventual confrontation. #war #politics
Battle of Carrhae (Caesarː A History Of The Art Of War Among The Romans Down To The End, vol. II, 1892) By Theodore Ayrault Dodge - Public domain - Internet Archiveː https://archive.org/details/greatcaptaincaes0002unse/mode/2up, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=137312127
52 BCE
Siege of Alesia
Caesar besieged Vercingetorix at Alesia, constructing massive double fortifications while fighting off simultaneous Gallic relief forces. The victory effectively completed the Roman conquest of Gaul. #war #siege
Alise-Sainte-Reine (Côte-d'Or, France) - Alesia museum - Reconstruction of the Roman contravallation (fortifications designed to protect the besiegers from sorties by its defenders) of the battle of Alesia By Benjamin Smith - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=177397363
Jan 10, 49 BCE
Crossing the Rubicon
Facing senatorial demands to disband his army, Caesar led the XIII Legion across the Rubicon river into Italy, declaring 'alea iacta est' (the die is cast). This irrevocable act initiated civil war against Pompey and the Senate. #war #politics
"Crossing the Rubicon" from Abbott, Jacob, 1803-1879. History of Julius Caesar. By Jacob Abbott - http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks14/1400491h.html#pic5, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46276962
Aug 9, 48 BCE
Victory at Pharsalus
Despite being outnumbered, Caesar decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in Thessaly. Pompey fled to Egypt where he was murdered; Caesar pursued and became entangled in Ptolemaic dynastic struggles. #war #politics
Battle of Pharsalus, 48 BC By The Department of History, United States Military Academy - http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34909541
47 BCE
Alexandrian War and Cleopatra
Caesar intervened in Egypt's civil war, supporting Cleopatra VII against her brother Ptolemy XIII. The subsequent Alexandrian War included the famous burning of the library and Caesar's notorious affair with the young queen. #war #politics
Marble bust of Cleopatra VII of Egypt from ca. 40-30 BC. An ancient Roman bust of Ptolemaic ruler Cleopatra VII of Egypt wearing a royal diadem band over her hair; dated to the mid-1st century BC (i.e. around the time of her visit to Rome), it was discovered in a villa along the Via Appia. It is now located in the Altes Museum, Berlin, in the Antikensammlung Berlin collection. العربية: تمثال لرأس الملكة كليوبترا معروض في متحف ألتيس في برلين Sources: Raia, Ann R.; Sebesta, Judith Lynn. (September 2017). "The World of State". College of New Rochelle. Accessed 6 March 2018. "Cat. 22 Tetradrachm Portraying Queen Cleopatra VII". Art Institute of Chicago. Accessed 6 March 2018. Grout, James. (April 1, 2017). "Was Cleopatra Beautiful?". Encyclopaedia Romana. University of Chicago. Accessed 6 March 2018. By Louis le Grand - own work / Altes Museum Berlin (Berliner Museumsinsel), Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2597825
Apr 6, 46 BCE
Victory at Thapsus
Caesar crushed the Pompeian forces in Africa led by Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger. Cato's subsequent suicide at Utica made him a martyr for republican liberty and a foil to Caesar's growing dominance. #war #politics
Battle of Thapsus, 46 BC (Initial deployment of troops) By Unknown author - [1], CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=116500838
46 BCE
Caesar's Calendar Reform
Consulting the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigenes, Caesar reformed the Roman calendar to the Julian system of 365.25 days, introducing the leap year. This calendar remained in use until the Gregorian reform of 1582. #science #reform
Mar 17, 45 BCE
Battle of Munda
Caesar fought his hardest battle at Munda in Spain against the sons of Pompey. Personal intervention rallying his wavering troops secured victory, eliminating the last organized Pompeian resistance. #war #politics
Battle of Munda (engraving by Matthäus Merian, cca 1625) By Author - Public domain - German Digital Library (DDB): https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/item/XKIYUW2BYZDNK43P6M53XQF4PKRKAOBK, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=134678713
45 BCE
Dictatorship and Reforms
The Senate appointed Caesar dictator perpetuo (dictator in perpetuity). He enacted sweeping reforms including debt relief, colonial settlements for veterans and poor citizens, and plans for public works and library expansion. #politics #reform
Julius Caesar February-March 44 BC. AR Denarius (19mm, 3.70 g, 6h). Lifetime issue. Rome mint. P. Sepullius Macer, moneyer. Wreathed head right / Venus Victrix standing left, holding Victory and scepter, shield set on ground to right. Crawford 480/10; Alföldi Type VIII, 61 (A9/R2); CRI 107a; Sydenham 1073; RSC 38. Near EF, lightly toned. Exceptional strike for issue. By CNG - https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=169745, CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=70011927
Mar 15, 44 BCE
Assassination on the Ides
A conspiracy of approximately sixty senators led by Brutus and Cassius stabbed Caesar twenty-three times in the Theatre of Pompey. His death at the foot of Pompey's statue fulfilled ominous prophecies and triggered renewed civil war. #assassination #politics
http://www.teeuwisse.de/catalogues/selected-drawings-ii/the-assassination-of-julius-caesar.html By Vincenzo Camuccini - Own work, user:Rlbberlin, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=145037989
42 BCE
Deification as Divus Julius
The triumvirs Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus secured Caesar's posthumous deification by the Senate. Temples and cult worship established the precedent for imperial divinity that would characterize the Roman Empire. #religion #politics
27 BCE
Augustus Completes Caesar's Legacy
Octavian, Caesar's adopted heir, received the title Augustus and established the Principate, completing the transformation of the Roman Republic into an empire that Caesar had begun through his dictatorship and reforms. #politics #empire
Augustus of Prima Porta By Justin Benttinen - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=164710011
![Q. Pompeius Rufus. 54 BC. AR Denarius (19mm, 3.21 g, 6h). Rome mint. Bare head of the consul Q. Pompeius Rufus right / Bare head of Sulla right. Crawford 434/1; Sydenham 908; Pompeia 4. Good VF, toned, some light cleaning scratches and marks under tone. Rare. Ex Numismatica Ars Classica 78 (26 May 2014), lot 458; Sternberg [VI] (25 November 1976), lot 755. This coin issue bears the only portrait of the dictator Sulla. The moneyer was the grandson of Sulla and his home would likely have had portraits of their famous ancestor. Thus, although posthumously struck, the portrait on these coins is probably an accurate representation.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Q._Pompeius_Rufus%2C_denarius%2C_54_BC%2C_RRC_434-1_%28Sulla_only%29.jpg)
