Encyclopedia/1. The Cosmos & The Natural World/5. Life Sciences/03. Molecular & Cellular Biology • Curated by Admin Timeline.sg
Bioinformatics · CRISPR/Gene editing · Proteomics
Chronological Storyline (34 Milestones)
3000 BCE
Sumerians record plant cultivation knowledge
Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations documented agricultural practices and plant properties on cuneiform tablets, representing some of the earliest systematic biological records in human history. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biology
The frontispiece from Erasmus Darwin's The Temple of Nature (1803). The veil of nature is pulled away By Erasmus Darwin - http://users.dickinson.edu/~nicholsa/Romnat/temple.htm, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1988849
1600 BCE
Egyptian Ebers Papyrus documents medicine
The Ebers Papyrus, a major Egyptian medical papyrus, described hundreds of remedies and anatomical observations, reflecting early systematic study of the human body and disease. Source — Wikipedia:
Papyrus Ebers, column 41 By PEbers_c41.jpg: Einsamer Schütze derivative work: Photohound (talk) - This file was derived from: PEbers c41.jpg:, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18511551
600 BCE
Sushruta records surgical and anatomical knowledge
The ancient Indian physician Sushruta compiled the Sushruta Samhita, documenting surgical techniques, anatomy, and medicinal plants, forming a cornerstone of Ayurvedic medicine. Source — Wikipedia:
Nepal, Text- 12th-13th century; Images- 18th-19th century Books Ink and opaque watercolor on palm leaf Gift of Emeritus Professor and Mrs. Thomas O. Ballinger (M.87.271a-g) South and Southeast Asian Art By Unknown author - Image: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31972784-O3.jpg Gallery: http://collections.lacma.org/node/170472 archive copy at the Wayback Machine, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=32452002
350 BCE
Aristotle systematically classifies living things
Aristotle classified organisms into hierarchical categories and studied embryology, establishing one of the earliest systematic approaches to biology that influenced science for two millennia. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle's_biology
it:Octopus macropus By SUBnormali Team Original uploader was Yoruno at it.wikipedia - Transferred from it.wikipedia (Original text : subnormali-team.blogspot.com), CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6381781
1020 CE
Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine compiles biology
The Persian polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) published The Canon of Medicine, synthesizing Greek, Persian, and Islamic medical knowledge including anatomy and the study of diseases. Source — Wikipedia:
The Persian manuscript copy of The Canon of Medicine in Museum and Mausoleum of Avicenna, Hamedan, Iran. By Coffeetalkh - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11906621
1240 CE
Ibn al-Nafis describes pulmonary circulation
The Arab physician Ibn al-Nafis correctly described pulmonary circulation of blood through the lungs, challenging Galenic anatomy and advancing physiological understanding centuries before Harvey. Source — Wikipedia:
Photograph of statue of Ibn Al Nafis By Unknown author - Arabic book on ibn al Nafis Takrouri M.S. M & Khalaf M 2003, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4759221
1665 CE
Hooke discovers cells in cork
Robert Hooke observed box-like structures in cork under a microscope and named them 'cells,' establishing the foundational concept of cellular biology. Source — Wikipedia:
Title page By Robert Hooke (1635-1703) - This image is available from the National Library of Wales, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7442137
1866 CE
Mendel publishes laws of inheritance
Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants revealed the fundamental laws of genetic inheritance, establishing the quantitative basis of heredity that underpins all of genetics. Source — Wikipedia:
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) By Unknown author - NIH, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1394893
1869 CE
Miescher discovers DNA
Friedrich Miescher isolated a phosphorus-rich substance from white blood cells in pus-soaked bandages, calling it 'nuclein' — the first isolation of what would later be known as DNA. Source — Wikipedia:
Friedrich Miescher (scientist) By Unknown author - copied from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/photo51/images/befo-miescher.jpg, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=789048
1944 CE
Avery proves DNA carries heredity
Oswald Avery and colleagues demonstrated that DNA, not protein, is the transforming principle that carries genetic information in bacteria, a pivotal step toward molecular genetics. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery%E2%80%93MacLeod%E2%80%93McCarty_experiment
DNA precipitated in water By Bbkkk - self-made in the Naturkunste Museum in Berlin, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3679283
Apr 25, 1953 CE
Watson, Crick, Franklin reveal DNA structure
James Watson and Francis Crick, building on Rosalind Franklin's X-ray diffraction data, published the double-helix structure of DNA, revolutionizing molecular biology and making genome sequencing conceivable. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes function. A chromosome consists of a long strand of DNA containing many genes. A human chromosome can be up to 500 Mega-base of DNA and contain thousands of genes. By Thomas Shafee - Own work, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=40736969The DNA Double Helix Discovery — HHMI BioInteractive Video
1973 CE
Boyer and Cohen create recombinant DNA
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen used restriction enzymes to cut and recombine DNA from different organisms, creating the first recombinant DNA molecules and launching genetic engineering. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA
gfd By Minestrone Soup at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons., CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=46890662
1977 CE
Sanger develops DNA sequencing method
Frederick Sanger developed the chain-termination method for sequencing DNA, enabling the reading of genetic code and earning him a second Nobel Prize in Chemistry. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanger_sequencing
The Sanger (chain-termination) method for DNA sequencing. (1) A primer is annealed to a sequence, (2) Reagents are added to the primer and template, including: DNA polymerase, dNTPs, and a small amount of all four dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) labeled with fluorophores. During primer elongation, the random insertion of a ddNTP instead of a dNTP terminates synthesis of the chain because DNA polymerase cannot react with the missing hydroxyl. This produces all possible lengths of chains. (3) The products are separated on a single lane capillary gel, where the resulting bands are read by a imaging system. (4) This produces several hundred thousand nucleotides a day, data which require storage and subsequent computational analysis By Estevezj - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23264166
1983 CE
Mullis invents PCR technique
Kary Mullis invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique to amplify specific DNA segments exponentially, becoming an indispensable tool in genomics, diagnostics, and forensics. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction
Photo of a strip of PCR tubes, each tube containing a 100 µl reaction mixture By Madprime - Own work, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2104468
1986 CE
Hood invents automated DNA sequencer
Leroy Hood and colleagues at Caltech developed the first automated DNA sequencer, dramatically increasing sequencing throughput and making large-scale genome projects feasible. Source — Wikipedia:
Lee Hood, MD, PhD, President and Co-found of the Institute for Systems Biology By Photo by Robin Layton - Institute for Systems Biology, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17064740
Oct 1, 1990 CE
Human Genome Project officially launches
The international Human Genome Project began its effort to sequence the entire human genome, establishing genomics as a major scientific discipline with a projected 15-year timeline. Source — Wikipedia:
Human Genome Project logo (color). By U.S. Department of Energy, Human Genome Project - http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2485616
1995 CE
First free-living organism genome sequenced
Craig Venter's team sequenced the complete genome of Haemophilus influenzae, the first free-living organism to have its genome fully decoded, ushering in the era of whole-genome sequencing. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae
Haemophilus influenzae colonies growing on the chocolate agar. Colonies shown with reflected light. By Stefan Walkowski - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=41492226
1996 CE
Yeast genome fully sequenced
An international consortium completed the sequencing of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast), the first eukaryotic genome to be fully sequenced, providing a model for understanding eukaryotic gene function. Source — Wikipedia:
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, SEM image By Mogana Das Murtey and Patchamuthu Ramasamy - https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/49652, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=52254246
1998 CE
C. elegans genome completed
The genome of Caenorhabditis elegans became the first complete animal genome sequence, providing critical insights into development, neurobiology, and gene function in multicellular organisms. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans
en:category:Caenorhabditis elegans By The original uploader was Kbradnam at English Wikipedia. (Original text: Zeynep F. Altun, Editor of www.wormatlas.org) - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. (Original text: Donated by Zeynep F. Altun), CC BY-SA 2.5, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2680458
1999 CE
BGI founded in Beijing
The Beijing Genomics Institute (later BGI) was established, becoming a major global genomics center and representing China's emergence as a leading force in large-scale genome sequencing and bioinformatics. Source — Wikipedia:
Company logo of BGI Group By BGI Group - https://en.genomics.cn/en-download.html, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=123043529
Feb 15, 2001 CE
First human genome drafts published
The Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics separately published draft sequences of the human genome, revealing approximately 30,000 genes and transforming biomedical research worldwide. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project
Human Genome Project logo (color). By U.S. Department of Energy, Human Genome Project - http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2485616
2002 CE
Rice genome sequenced by international team
An international consortium including BGI published draft sequences of the rice genome (Oryza sativa), a landmark for agricultural genomics with major implications for global food security. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oryza_sativa
Mature Rice (India) by Augustus Binu By Augustus Binu : flickr : Instagram - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=88656156
Apr 14, 2003 CE
Human Genome Project completed
The Human Genome Project announced successful completion, producing a near-complete sequence of the human genome and launching the post-genomic era of functional genomics and personalized medicine. Source — Wikipedia:
Human Genome Project logo (color). By U.S. Department of Energy, Human Genome Project - http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis, Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2485616How Scientists Finally Finished the Human Genome
2005 CE
Next-generation sequencing emerges
454 Life Sciences introduced massively parallel pyrosequencing, the first next-generation sequencing platform, reducing sequencing costs and time by orders of magnitude and democratizing genomics. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-generation_sequencing
2008 CE
1000 Genomes Project launches
An international consortium launched the 1000 Genomes Project to catalog human genetic variation across populations, establishing foundational resources for population and medical genomics globally. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_Genomes_Project
Changes in the number and order of genes (A-D) create genetic diversity within and between populations. By Jthiele (talk) - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=54137526
2010 CE
First synthetic bacterial genome created
J. Craig Venter's team synthesized and transplanted a complete Mycoplasma mycoides genome into a recipient cell, creating the first cell controlled by a synthetic genome and advancing synthetic genomics. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_mycoides
Modified Mycoplasma mycoides strain JCVI-syn3A by the John Craig Venter Institute. CC BY License is given at: https://cdn.rcsb.org/pdb101/goodsell/2022_JCVI-syn3A.pdf which is linked from source https://pdb101.rcsb.org/sci-art/goodsell-gallery/jcvi-syn3a-minimal-cell By David S. Goodsell - https://pdb101.rcsb.org/sci-art/goodsell-gallery/jcvi-syn3a-minimal-cell, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=118463017
Jun 28, 2012 CE
CRISPR-Cas9 described as genome editing tool
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier published the foundational paper demonstrating that CRISPR-Cas9 could be programmed to edit DNA at specific locations, launching a revolution in genome editing. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing
Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 bound to sgRNA (purple) and target DNA (blue) duplex. The recognition lobe (orange) is essential for binding sgRNA and DNA and the nuclease lobe (red) hydrolyses the target DNA. PDB: 4OO8 By Deposition authors: Nishimasu, H., Ishitani, R., Nureki, O.; Visualization author: Synpath - Atom coordinates: https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4OO8; Visualization: Own work, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=133423568Crispr-Cas9 explained: the biggest revolution in gene editing
2013 CE
CRISPR applied in human cells
Feng Zhang and George Church independently demonstrated CRISPR-Cas9 editing in mammalian and human cells, opening the door to therapeutic genome editing applications. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing
Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 bound to sgRNA (purple) and target DNA (blue) duplex. The recognition lobe (orange) is essential for binding sgRNA and DNA and the nuclease lobe (red) hydrolyses the target DNA. PDB: 4OO8 By Deposition authors: Nishimasu, H., Ishitani, R., Nureki, O.; Visualization author: Synpath - Atom coordinates: https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4OO8; Visualization: Own work, CC0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=133423568
2015 CE
Yuan Longping breaks hybrid rice yield record
Chinese agronomist Yuan Longping's team achieved record hybrid rice yields exceeding 1,000 kg per mu, demonstrating how genomics-informed breeding can address global food security challenges. Source — Wikipedia:
9月5日，“杂交水稻之父”袁隆平在湖南长沙接受媒体采访时透露，目前自己和团队正在攻关的超级稻来势很好，可能在10月突破亩产1200公斤大关。 By China News Service - YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qsY6qWxCtV4 – View/save archived versions on archive.org 0:35, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=105654860
2016 CE
BGI and global proteomics collaborations expand
Large-scale proteomics initiatives, including the Human Proteome Project and BGI's mass spectrometry platforms, advanced systematic identification and quantification of proteins encoded by the genome. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomics
Public domain image from cancer.gov http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/details.cfm?imageid=3483. TECAN Genesis 2000 robot preparing Ciphergen SELDI-TOF protein chips for proteomic pattern analysis. Highly accurate cancer prognosis can be accomplished by identifying protein patterns of specific cancers using this device. By Unknown author - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Protein_pattern_analyzer.jpg Originally uploaded to en:wikipedia by Quintote (talk • contribs), 21:55, 2 September 2006 UTC (log)., Public domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3724611
2018 CE
DeepMind's AlphaFold predicts protein structures
DeepMind introduced AlphaFold, using deep learning to predict 3D protein structures from amino acid sequences, solving a grand challenge in proteomics and bioinformatics. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaFold
AlphaFold's predicted structure of T1044 (PDB 6VR4), an RNA polymerase of crAss-like phage phi14:2 By Kathryn Tunyasuvunakool, Jonas Adler, Zachary Wu, Tim Green, Michal Zielinski, Augustin Žídek, Alex Bridgland, Andrew Cowie, Clemens Meyer, Agata Laydon, Sameer Velanka *, Gerard J Kleywegt *, Alex Bateman *, Richard Evans, Alexander Pritzel, Michael Figurnov, Olaf Ronneberger, Russ Bates, Simon A. A. Kohl, Anna Potapenko, Andrew J Ballard, Bernardino Romera-Paredes, Stanislav Nikolov, Rishub Jain, Ellen Clancy, David Reiman, Stig Petersen, Andrew Senior, Koray Kavukcuoglu, Ewan Birney *, Pushmeet Kohli, John Jumper, Demis Hassabis - https://deepmind.google/blog/enabling-high-accuracy-protein-structure-prediction-at-the-proteome-scale/, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=188769148
Oct 7, 2020 CE
Doudna and Charpentier win Nobel for CRISPR
Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developing CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing, the first time two women alone shared a science Nobel. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna
Jennifer Doudna by Christopher Michel in 2023 By Christopher Michel - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=134414325Nobel winners Doudna, Charpentier discover how CRISPR Cas9 gene editing works | Good Chemistry
2022 CE
T2T completes first complete human genome
The Telomere-to-Telomere consortium published the first truly complete sequence of a human genome, filling gaps that had remained unresolved for two decades and including all centromeres. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere
2023 CE
CRISPR therapy approved for sickle cell disease
The UK and US approved Casgevy (exa-cel), the first CRISPR-based gene-editing therapy for sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia, marking the clinical translation of genome editing. · Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casgevy
